The Emergence Of The Role Theory

The Emergence Of The Role Theory Role theory is a conceptual framework with long history in the field of Foreign policy analysis. In order to explain and understand the foreign policy of nation states, the role theory focuses on the reasoning of national political elites, their explanation of the international system and their own states role within this larger system. Despite its conceptual stringency, methodological openness and rich empirical applications, the role theory seems to be neglected by the main stream scholars. Role theory as we said is a long established conceptual tool for the foreign policy analysis. While the role theory analytical potential is high, only recently we have witnessed its revival. Role theory first attracted attention in the foreign policy literature after the publication of Holstis  [1]  study of national role conceptions. Role theory had been in development for nearly four decades in Sociology, Social Psychology and Anthropology by this time. Holsti didnt import much of the conceptual or theoretical language associated with role theory. He chose to focus on the simple idea that the Self, in this case the leaders of the state may hold a set of beliefs or images about the identity of the state. Also, a social psychologist of the sociological variety  [2]  suggested that Holstis article may well be an example where borrowing a theory has paid off. These national role conceptions were shaped the way that a state acted by it in the international system level. The objective of this paper is to present a role theory as a theoretical and conceptual tool for the analysis of the foreign policy. This paper will divide into parts. First part introduces the intellectual sources and inspiration of the role theory. The second part introduces the assumptions of the role theory, and then Ill mention the key concepts offered by the theoretical conceptual framework of the role theory. The third part summarizes the criticism of International Relations theorists towards formulation of the role theory. The fourth part explores briefly how we can integrate foreign policy analysis and international relation through role theory. The emergence of the Role Theory and its intellectual sources: Role theory was first introduced in 1970 by Kalevi Holsti in his article National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy. In 1970, Holsti criticized the unnecessarily crude shape of the national roles and too strong pre occupation with national role types relevant to then structural conditions such as bloc, leader, satellites, allies, and non-aligned. Such typology ignores the great set of roles that smaller states play in the system and in different regions  [3]  . At a time of structuralism analysis of foreign policy, Holsti tries to refocus the attention of the discipline towards the domestic sources of foreign policy behavior. Role theory has been inspied by sociological and social psychological theories about the role of individual in the society  [4]  . Holsti drew heavily on Meads symbolic inter action  [5]  long before Wendt picked symbolic inter action as a core principle of his constructivist theory. Holsti relies on George H. Mead and his study of the impact of the behavior of others on an individuals self conceptions and his conceptual distinctions between the self and the change. Symbolic inter action remains the most important source of inspiration for role theorists up until today. Social psychological and sociological theories about the role of individual in the society are applied in the explanation of the behavior of the state. Role theorists argue that by providing the sense of purpose of the state in international community, national role conceptions concede the state with a sense of selfhood and identity. Without the sense of identity, individuals cant order their environments and they will find that the social behavior becomes difficult to understand and manage  [6]  . According to Chaftez, the same process occurs within the states. In this sense, role theory is just another example of anthropomorphic theory  [7]  . It is built around an anthropomorphic assumption that we can draw an analogy between individuals in the society and the state. This assumption some would say chicanery allows us to import social psychological and sociological theories into the disciplines of international relations and foreign policy analysis. At the same time the role theory steers clear of the trap of treating states as some kind of unitary actors. After explaining the origin of role theory and knowing the main scholars and intellectuals ideas of the theory. Ill explain the main assumptions that theory depend on. Theoretical assumption of the role theory: This part tries to identify the assumptions of the role theory which are the epistemological and ontological and its position in contemporary theoretical debates. The starting point is the classification of approaches to the study of foreign policy by Walter Carlsnaes  [8]  . In line with the categories developed by Hollis and Smith  [9]  , Carlsnaes distinguishes four basic approaches to the study of foreign policy according to their epistemological assumptions which are objectivism versus interpretativism and ontological assumptions versus individualism. Objectivist holistic approach such as various strands of realism and neo realism offer a structural perspective on the foreign policy. Objectivist individualist approaches such as bureaucratic politics approaches and liberal approach see the foreign policy from the agency based perspective. On the intersection between holism and interpretativism lie the approaches such as: social constructivism or discursive approaches representing the social institutional perspective. Hollis and Smith distinguish explanation and understanding as two basic epistemological positions. Explanatory approach is inspired by natural sciences and looks for causal relations within the social reality. On the other side interpretivists rely on reconstructing inter subjective meaning of that structure for the subjects of interests. The goal of interpretativism is to reconstruct and understand the way people make sense of the social reality and on this ground understand the behavior of individuals and groups. While some authors argue that the two theoretical questions are interrelated as ontological position predestined the epistemological choice  [10]  , Carlsnaes agrees with Hollis and Smith that ontology doesnt entail epistemology and thus we can distinguish four basic combinations of theoretical perspectives. After that, itll be better to explain the meaning of the two assumptions which are epistemology and ontology in details to form the whole image in our minds about the role theory. Epistemology The epistemological position of the role theory is quite clear according to Carlsnaes. It is an example of interpretative perspective. Role theory seems to favor domestic sources of foreign policy and at the same time given its roots in symbolic interactionism, role theory produces interpretative knowledge rather than casual explanations. Role theory allows us to reconstruct the meaning attributed to national role by the domestic elite individual national foreign policy makers  [11]  . Carlsnaes classification shows the original analytical intentions of those who formulate the role theory. According to Stephen Walker, role theory offers a thick description. The theoretical function of role theory isnt codifying abstract regularities but to make thick description possible, not to generalize across cases but to generalize within them. In line with its epistemological underlying, role theory is more suitable for answering the How possible questions rather than the Why questions. Role theory follows the principles of interpretative which examine the background of social and digressive practices and meanings which make possible the foreign policy practices as well as the social actors themselves, how meanings are produced and attached to various social subjects and objects thus constituting particular interpretive disposition which create certain possibilities and exclude others. Ontology Walter Carlsnaes, following Hollis and Smith distinguishes two basic ontological positions: holism and individualism. Holism holds that the effects of social structures cant be reduced to independently existing agents and their interactions, and that these effects include the construction of agents in both causal and constitutive senses  [12]  . The dynamics of social systems can always be tracked to the evolutionary changes on the level of self reproducing structures  [13]  . On the other side individualists claim that individuals are ontologically primary, all social phenomena as institutions, norms and cultue are intended or unintended consequences of aggregated behavior of the individuals. Social scientific explanations should be reducible to the properties or interactions of independently existing individuals. Walter Carlsnaes puts the role theory unambigously into the individualist box. The role theoretical analyzes focus on the reasoning of individual national foreign policy makers. Role theory exemplifies the bottom up individualist interpretative approach which is concerned to understand decisions from the standpoint of the decision makers by reconstructing their reasons. Holsti and most of the empirical applications of his conceptual framework didnt incorporate role prescriptions of external expectation and their empirical analyses focus solely on the domestic sources of national roles. Conceptual framework of the role theory: Its better to divide the concepts of the role theory into three categories which are: National role conceptions, which are better one role or many roles and other concepts of the role theory. National role conceptions Role theory explains the foreign policy behavior by exploring the roles played by individual countries in international level. The conceptual framework of the role theory has evolved through time as new concepts have been added. The key concept of the role theory is national role conception introduced by Holsti. He defines the national role conception as the policymakers have definitions of the general kinds of decisions, commitments, rules and actions suitable to their state and its the function of any state that should perform on a continuing basis in the international system or in subordinate regional systems. Its the image of the appropriate orientations or functions of their state or in the external environment  [14]  . This definition has been widely accepted by other role theorists. For example Ulrich Krotz thirty years later defines the national role conceptions as domestically shared views and understandings regarding the proper role and purpose of ones own state as a so cial collectivity in the international arena  [15]  . National role conceptions induce preferences and motivate wills, goals and actions. Often interests and policies that derive from National role conceptions are viewed as normal and right within the respective country. According to Le Prestre, the articulation of a national role betrays preferences, operations of an image of the world, triggers expectations and influences the definition of the situation and of the available options  [16]  . At the same time, national role conceptions make certain interests and policy options intuitively implausible, categorically exclude them as wrong or unacceptable or make them unthinkable. National role conceptions are a product of domestic socialization processes and they give meaning and purpose to the foreign policy. One role or many roles Glen Chafetz notes that actors usually have multiple roles that various in overall importance centrality and according to the situation salience. This argument is supported by Holstis original empirical analysis. He confirms that on the lowest level of a day to day politics actors normally have several different roles in the international system and its subsystems. Role theory reflects the arguments made by James March and Johan Olsen that humans maintain a repertoire of roles and identities each providing rules of appropriate behavior in situations for which they are relevant  [17]  . On the other side some researchers adopt the single role assumption that the foreign policy as such is on the highest plane guided by a shared, historically constituted role vision of a national mission which is relatively stable and coherent across time, context and circumstances. The analysis of such dominant, overarching shared view, understanding regarding the proper role and purpose of ones own state as a social collectivity in the international arena can be challenged for being overly generalizing. By looking for common thing in the national elites world views and visions of the national mission, we get that one inevitably puts aside differences in the political elites foreign policy priorities. On the other side the single role assumption allows us to trace and explain patterns in the foreign policy of the state and identify ideas discourse shared even among national politicians with different political preferences in foreign policy making. Other concepts of the role theory Even though the national role conception represents the key concept of the role theory it isnt the only concept. While the national role conception is an egos own conception of his position and function, the term role prescription has been introduced to capture the alters prescriptions. Holsti defined role prescriptions as norms and expectations cultures, societies, institutions or groups attach to particular positions. Role prescriptions emanate from the external environment. In the constructivist language role prescriptions are interred subjectively shared norms and expectations which form the social structure of the international system. Even though the term role prescriptions has been introduced in the role theory since its very beginning, the structural source of the role prescriptions has been sidelined and hardly utilized in role theoretical empirical analyzes. It took some time before role theorists acknowledged the analytical value of the role prescriptions and of the struct ural dimension of the role theory. Contemporary role theorists not only acknowledge on a theoretical level that roles are determined both by an actors own conceptions about appropriate behavior and by the expectations or role prescriptions of other actors but they include role prescriptions into the design of their empirical analyses. The inclusion of the role prescriptions into the research design is in line with the tenets of symbolic interactionism and with the constructivist arguments that roles are institutionalized in social structure. Stephen Walker a Sheldon Simon introduced another structural concept into the framework of the role theory: role set  [18]  . Role sets can be defined as a set of actors positioned as significant others and the web of mutual roles in the system. It is a web of mutual expectations which according to Walker and Simon represent a dynamic and interconnected system. The last term is national role performance. National role performance denotes concrete foreign policy decisions and actions. National role performance encompasses the attitudes decisions and actions governments take versus other actors in order to implement the role. Empirical analyzes relying on the concept national role conceptions usually rely on the single role assumption, they try to discover domestically shared ideas about the purpose and role of the state in international arena and they try to illustrate. The term role set is simply denoting the set of roles played by a particular state versus the spectrum of other actors explain the continuity in the foreign policy behavior of national role performance. On the other side analyzes operationalizing the concept of role prescriptions are better equipped to capture and explain changes in roles and role performance of foreign policy behavior. For example: Walker and Simon claim that actors do from time to time experience role conflict. Role conflict is defined as a situation in which multiple roles are elicited by competing or conflicting expectations, cues and conceptions. This conflict can have the form of a clash between contradicting national role conceptions and role prescriptions or as a clash between two competing role prescriptions. Walker and Simon convincingly argue that the structure of the role set is a product of this role location process as countries enact roles and attempt to cope with role conflict. If individual member of the system in an attempt to solve his own role conflict and changes the role he plays in the system then the whole role set changes as other members of the change their roles and expectations in respons e. The criticism of the role theory: In line with Carlsnaes classification of the role theory as an individualist interpretative approach, International Relation constructivists treat the role theory as an actor based perspective. Alexander Wendt who praises the role theory for introducing symbolic inter actionism into the field criticizes Holsti for emphasizing the agentic role taking side of the equation at the expense of the structural, role constituting side which strips the concept of role of much of its interest. Similarly Audie Klotz criticizes Holsti for excessive focus on individual motivation and cognition at for ignoring the congruence in shared norms which form the backbone of dominant ideas and knowledge. To summarize the critique, International Relation constructivists castigate the role theory for orientation on subjective rather than inter subjective ideas. Role theory seems to forget that national identity and role is not only about inner experience of the state in elite national role conceptions but al so about the structure of expectations of the wider international environment role prescriptions. Wendt and other critics are to some extent different and right. The theoretical and conceptual model introduced by Holsti in fact incorporates not only actor centered national role conceptions domestically shared visions about the role and purpose of the state in international arena but also structural role prescriptions expectations of others. But this socio psychological theoretical model wasnt fully translated into Holstis design for a foreign policy analysis. Even though role the agent society relationship plays a crucial role in the original Meads social psychological theory, Holsti depreciated the impact of society on the formation of national roles in the international context. In his words the expectations of other governments, legal norms expressed through custom, general usage, treaties and available sanctions to enforce. These are ill defined, flexible and weak compared to those that exist in an integrated society and particularly within formal organizations. In a rather n eorealist he also refers to the lack of institutions, acute international conflict and the fact of sovereignty as the factors behind the precedence of policymakers role conceptions over externally derived role expectations. Here lies the rift between Holsti on one side and the English School and constructivist IR on the other side which has been reproduced in some of the empirical analyses. Integration of FPA and IR through Role Theory: Role theory has an intermittent presence in the study of foreign policy analysis, though it is unfamiliar to scholars in international relations. Yet it is uniquely suited to integrate IR and FPA. Role theory is premised on explaining and understanding the interaction between agents and structure. This may sound familiar to constructivist IR scholars. Role theory tends to focus on the agent structure debate from a slightly different, albeit complementary and vantage point. Foreign policy analysis and International Relation scholars operate within different analytical traditions. Whereas the former consider the individual to be the ground of International Relation theory, the latter are more apt to proceed from a system level orientation. To be more precise, Foreign policy analysis scholars often use role theory informed by social psychology while International Relation scholars are more firmly grounded in constructivist principles borrowed from sociology. There is a geographical divide: the former group of scholars is more prevalent in the United States, whereas the latter tend to be located in Europe and elsewhere in the world. Both groups use methods of analysis and standards of evidence that are in keeping with their separate traditions. Some suggest that theories of International Relations cant also be theories of foreign policy. However, others have argued that there is no logical barrier to such a synthesis  [19]  . We believe that role theory offers the potential for integration, possibly and synthesis. Foreign Policy Analysis generally as well as cognitive approaches specifically and International Relation theory generally as well as constructivism specifically stand to benefit from the results of dialogue between the formers largely agent based role theory and the latters largely system based agent structure debate. Although fully synthesizing the two fields may not be feasible, there is so much common ground that bridging the divide between these two traditions not only brings them closer together but also advances knowledge in both Foreign Policy Analysis and International Relations theory. Indeed some efforts aimed at synthesis can already be identified. Consider for example: Maulls work on the civilian power role of Germany and Japan and Harnischs subsequent efforts to place Germanys civilian power role in a constructivist International Relations framework. These two scholars demonstrate the potential for a synthesis of Foreign Policy and International Relations through role theory. Roles like the civilian power role make intuitive sense to policymakers and offer great potential to translate Foreign Policy and International Relations theory into meaningful policy relevant advice.

How One Film Demonstrates Features Which Can Be Considered as Post-Modern Essay

Film within the post-modern genre simply illustrates the ideas of postmodernism through expressive art. Postmodern can be defined as a â€Å"genre of art and literature†¦ in reaction against principles and practices of established modernism† In this essay I will be outlining the key concepts as well as characteristics that can be found in a post modern film. Postmodern cinema contradicts the typical principle of narrative structure and the portrayal of the characters. One film I believe illustrates these ideologies is Quentin Tarantino’s film Pulp Fiction. Released when postmodern films were at its peek. Pulp Fiction has to be one of cinemas most iconic films of all time. Due to the uncertainty of the characters and the stylised yet ambiguous nature of the plot, Pulp fiction is not only to be branded intriguing but also a great example of postmodern. Work by theorists such as Fredric Jameson, will be looked at to help with the analysis of the chosen film. By doing so this helps prove that key concepts which are present within the film such as pastiche, irony, fragmentation and parody are perceptions that together make up a postmodern film proving that pulp fiction is a good illustration. The use of pastiche is present throughout the film. Pastiche allows the emergence of differing techniques to form together in order to create a new structure. Replications of renowned film makers work has been used in order for an updated equally creative film to be produced. Anything from words, phrases, visual, and musical patterns can be used, by doing so it demonstrates that postmodern film is a combination of a variety of texts, styles and skills. Many theorists have spoken openly about their disproval of pastiche. Theorist Fredric Jameson for example even goes as far as to refer to pastiche as a â€Å"dead language†. In the book Postmodern Culture Fredric Jameson writes about the decline of new art, he writes â€Å"in a world in which stylistic innovation is no longer possible, all that is left is to imitate dead styles† (Jameson,1995 ) Even though â€Å"plagiarism of older plots†(Jameson, 1995) occurs in some films it can be argued that by this technique being used it allows an ingenious reinvention of a classic, to be made. One of the first indications of pastiche in Pulp Fiction takes place in the third scene where Vincent (John Travolta) and Jules (Samuel L. Jackson) enter the house. When Vincent is directed to the place where the brief case is, and opens it he is to be met by a bright glow, the scenes shows similar replication to a 1950s film in the film noir genre; called kiss me deadly. Where in both films the characters gaze adoringly in to the case, in Pulp Fiction the question of what it could possibly be is asked, considering the 666 (the mark of the anti-Christ) had to be entered into the case in order for it to be opened. Referencing to the 1950s is evident in the film, Marcellous’s wife Mia is associated with the 1950s quite a lot. The dialogue between Vincent and Mia is reminiscent to what would be said in a 1950s film. This idea is highlighted again when she chooses to go to a 1950s themed restaurant. The language and the setting break’s away from the usual formatting of the film which up until now consisted of violence. Mia being so much associated with the 1950s is rather ironic as you automatically associate the 1950s and women to be calm and innocent. We soon find this not to be the case as she is soon after shown taking drugs in the bathroom. Another example of pastiche within the film would be when Marcellous got raped. After his traumatic experience he tells Butch that he’s going to get his men to work on Zed with a â€Å"pair of pliers and a blow torch†. A line that was famously taken from the film Charley Varrick. The use of parody is another postmodern feature that is evident in pulp fiction. Like pastiche parody is also the imitation of a person’s previous work. Even though they may seem the same, the two techniques in fact contrast one another. Parody imitates film through cynicism whilst pastiche emulates true form. According to Jameson the use of parody emphasises a films distinctiveness through mockery, he rightly declares â€Å"now parody capitalises the uniqueness of these styles and seizes on their idiosyncrasies and eccentricities to produce a imitation which mocks the original† (Jameson,1995 ) The sarcastic tone to situations that can be considered to be serious are ridiculed whilst random partially irrelevant scenes are present at times. This technique easily can be seen as an attack on history however it also can be perceived as a humorous take on a scene or situation of something of importance. According to Linda Hutcheon â€Å"pastiche usually has to remain within the same genre as its model, whereas parody allows for adaptation† (Hutcheon1989). Parody allows the script to differentiate away from the original and become a voice and vision of its own, helping create a new meaning to the scene. Parody allows the script to differentiate away from the original and become a voice and vision of its own, helping create a new meaning to the scene. An example of parody is shown in the film is in the scene where Butch is a young boy. He receives a visit from a friend of his father who died at war. On first appearances you as the audience not only are intrigued but curious to find out what is going on. What seems to be something of importance is soon dismissed as the soldier goes on to talk about how Butch’s birth right was hidden up his and Butch’s fathers â€Å"ass† for seven years. Another element which is evident is the exploitation of words and situations being used in order to suggest the opposite of their intended meaning. Pulp Fiction explores this feature in the form of irony. The three types of irony used are: irony of fate, verbal irony and dramatic irony. Together the three different varieties of irony merge collectively providing a witty script. The scene where the two men in suits (Samuel L. Jackson and John Travolta) approach the door and enters, is a prime example of dramatic irony. This is due to fact that we know something bad is going to take place. The audience knows more than the characters in the film, making us to wonder what will happen next. The sarcastic tone in the conversation Jules is having with one of the victims, too adds to the suspense as his tone is not serious â€Å"do you mind if I have some of your tasty beverage to wash this down? The dialogue is rather confusing as you immediately think that your interpretation of events must be wrong and once again are left not knowing what is going to happen next. Before killing the victim Jules recites a biblical verse â€Å"The path of the righteous man is beset on all sides by the iniquities of the selfish and the tyranny of evil men. Blessed is he who in the name of charity and goodwill shepherds the weak through the valley of darkness, for he is truly his brother’s keeper and the finder of lost children. And I will trike down upon thee with great vengeance and furious anger those who attempt to poison and destroy my brothers. And you will know my name is the Lord when I lay my vengeance upon thee† (Ezekiel 25:17). The irony behind this is that he associates God with assignation. His act has now become justified in a deluded way. Whereas before God was associated with negativity in regards to Jules in the end it was the â€Å"divine intervention† of God that also saved him from the life of violence. Jules’ epiphany came when he was close to death it was this same epiphany that saved the thieves in the diner at the end. An example of irony of fate would have to be when Butch runs into Marcellous at the traffic lights. This is ironic as Butch escapes being killed due to Marcellous putting out a warrant for him. The scene continues to show irony as the two of them end up being put in a compromising situation in which they end up needing the help of the other for their own survival. Marvin’s death in the car is an additional case of irony of fate. He ends up being shot accidentally minutes after his life was spared. This is tragic as in Marvin’s case he was killed due to being at the wrong place at the wrong time. The complex nature of the film means that pulp fiction contains multiple storylines making it a story within a story. This fragmented form â€Å"deliberately discontinuous narratives†¦to suggest the fragmentation and breaks-up of formerly accepted systems of thought and belief† (Tim Woods, 1999). This particular feature is vital and takes place through out. The mergence from one thing into the next forces those watching to construct and figure out the story for themselves. Fragmentation has a real role of importance in Pulp fiction as the distorted storyline enables the audience to have empathy for the characters. The beginning of the film which we later find out is in fact the end, starts off with a mid way conversation between a man and a women. Only seconds into the movie and already the audience is left unsure of what it is they are talking about and what is going on in the scene. After a confusing dialogue between the two people which lasts only a few minutes the scene ends with a frozen image of the two of them. Not knowing what is going on is a theme which is explored throughout the film. Like in the first scene the scene following, too starts off with a conversation which has already started â€Å"okay so tell me again bout the hash bar† by doing so again the audience are unaware of what is taking place and feel the need to construct the story for themselves. A different example in the scene â€Å"Vincent Vega and Marsellus Wallace’s wife† introduces another character which the film later reveals is one of three protagonist characters Butch. Like the formatting of the other scenes a conversation is already taking place when the scene begins. The scene continues and Vincent and Jules randomly enter wearing t-shirts and shorts. It is only nearer to the end of the film that we find out why they are wearing what they are wearing. As the film draws to an end the first scene in the diner is explained in the last scene. The audience later find out that both Vincent and Jules are in fact present at the robbery. With his new morally correct path in which Jules wants to pursue he spares them their lives even though they had a gun pointed in his face. After an extensive look into postmodern film and the role in which it plays in the formation of film, it is evident that it is these features that make the films what they are, despite it contrasting the conventions of typical film. Borrowing plot lines from other well known sources, the use of sarcasm when imitating art, irony and perplexity are just a few descriptions, you could find within this genre. Even though at times these features have been questioned as well as criticised, in the end the final product at times are fascinating, a good example of this theory defiantly lies in the film pulp fiction. Pulp fiction forces the audience not to conform to the conventional ideas of film but instead consider a new way of understanding and acknowledge film. The concepts effectively add a new type of understanding to a collective of ideologies, allowing the reader to witness many different transitions that occurs within life through the characters. The relation between postmodernism and film has been openly criticised yet applauded by theorists. The lack of originality is the main focal point in regards to the subject with some theorist even referring it to plagiarism. Quentin Tarantino disproves this theory as his work is a prime example of originality and uniqueness that can come out of postmodern film in spite of pastiche, parody, irony and fragmentation being used.

Mathematics Important When Looking At Australian...

Mathematics used in the investigation Mathematics is important when looking at Australian teenagers’ nutrients consumption. Different mathematics will be used throughout the investigation process, such as statistics, measurement and number. Statistics has become one of the major mathematics learning areas as interpreting and working with a number of data became important numeracy skills according to the development of new technologies. Different statistics will be collected during secondary research process. The collected data will be described, compared, evaluated, interpreted and displayed in relation to the topic in assignment 3. Number is important when looking and comparing statistical data. Quantitative data includes measurements and values, which will be the main type of data used in the investigation. Having a good understanding of numbers including decimals, percentages and rates is important in this investigation. Measurement will be used throughout the investigation. This includes measuring and estimating the difference between the Australian teenagers’ diet and the recommended diet by health professionals. Selecting appropriate metric units is important, for example kilocalorie (kcal) and calories (cal) when comparing energy consumption. Data Collection Data collection is important in this investigation. Both quantitative and qualitative data will be collected. Quantitative data is a form of numeric data which includes measurement and values. Various numericShow MoreRelatedA Critical Aspects Of The Relationship Between Australia And Australia931 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Obesity became one of the major health concerns in Australia. According to Malicdem (2015), teenagers in Australia were successful of avoiding bad habits such as consuming alcohol, smoking or drugs. However, obesity still remained as one of the major health problems. 27 percent of young Australians aged 12 to 24 were considered as overweight. In addition to this, the statistics showed low vegetable and fruit consumption. Only 10 percent of the population stated that they eat vegetablesRead MoreConsumer Lifestyle in Singapore35714 Words   |  143 PagesConsumer Expenditure on Clothing and Footwear as a Proportion of Total Consumer Expenditure 2011................ 35 Health and Wellness Habits ....................................................................................................... 36 Public Versus Private Healthcare ........................................................................................... 36 Attitudes To Health and Well-being ........................................................................................ 37 Over-the-counterRead Morepreschool Essay46149 Words   |  185 PagesCalifornia Preschool Learning Foundations Volume 2 CALIFORNIA DEPAR TMENT OF EDUCATION †¢ SACRAMENTO, 2010 California Preschool Learning Foundations Volume 2 Visual and Performing Arts Physical Development Health Publishing Information The California Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume 2) was developed by the Child Development Division, California Department of Education. This publication was edited by Faye Ong, working in cooperation with Laura Bridges and DesireeRead MoreHuman Resources Management150900 Words   |  604 Pagesmanagers. List and define each of the seven major categories of HR activities. Identify the three different roles of HR management. Discuss the three dimensions associated with HR management as a strategic business contributor. Explain why HR professionals and operating managers must view HR management as an interface. Discuss why ethical issues and professionalism affect HR management as a career field. ââ€"  ââ€"  ââ€"  ââ€"  ââ€"  3 HR TRANSITIONS HR Management Contributes to OrganizationalRead MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesISSUES: We Are Now Entering the Blogosphere 10 Workforce Diversity 10 The Workforce Today 10 DID YOU KNOW?: Chief Diversity Officer 11 How Diversity Affects HRM 11 WORKPLACE ISSUES: Diversity Awareness 12 What Is a Work/Life Balance? 12 DID YOU KNOW?: Looking at the Future of HRM 13 DID YOU KNOW?: International Diversity 14 The Labor Supply 14 Do We Have a Shortage of Skilled Labor? 14 Why Do Organizations Lay Off Employees during Shortages? 15 How Do Organizations Balance Labor Supply? 15 Issues ContingentRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pagesthat is sold to students). (3) No Derivative Works You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. An earlier version of the book was published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California USA in 1993 with ISBN number 0-534-17688-7. When Wadsworth decided no longer to print the book, they returned their publishing rights to the original author, Bradley Dowden. The current version has been significantly revised. If you would like to suggest changes to the text, the author would appreciateRead More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 Pagesand received the Siemens Award for Advanced Placement in mathematics in 1999. Chris is a frequent contributor to the AP Statistics Electronic Discussion Group and has reviewed materials for The Mathematics Teacher, the AP Central web site, The American Statistician, and the Journal of the American Statistical Association. He currently writes a column for Stats magazine. Chris graduated from Iowa State University with a major in mathematics and, while acquiring graduate degrees at the University ofRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesUnderstanding and Appreciating Individual Differences Important Areas of Self-Awareness 61 Emotional Intelligence 62 Values 65 Ethical Decision Making and Values 72 Cognitive Style 74 Attitudes Toward Change 76 Core Self-Evaluation 79 SKILL ANALYSIS 84 Cases Involving Self-Awareness 84 Communist Prison Camp 84 Computerized Exam 85 Decision Dilemmas 86 SKILL PRACTICE 89 Exercises for Improving Self-Awareness Through Self-Disclosure 89 Through the Looking Glass 89 Diagnosing Managerial Characteristics 90Read MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesLibrary Am I Engaged? 78 Myth or Science? â€Å"Favorable Job Attitudes Make Organizations More Profitable† 83 Point/Counterpoint Employer–Employee Loyalty Is an Outdated Concept 87 Questions for Review 88 Experiential Exercise What Factors Are Most Important to Your Job Satisfaction? 89 Ethical Dilemma Bounty Hunters 89 Case Incident 1 Long Hours, Hundreds of E-Mails, and No Sleep: Does This Sound Like a Satisfying Job? 90 Case Incident 2 Crafting a Better Job 91 4 Emotions and Moods 97 WhatRead MoreStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 PagesHow can we ensure arrival? Strategic implementaion and control 16 Problems to overcome 17 Management control –1 18 Management control –2 15 Modelling approaches –2 Chapter 1 Introduction INTRODUCTION 3 1.1 Learning objectives When you have read this chapter you should be able to: (a) define marketing in strategic terms; (b) understand the basic structure of the book and how this chapter establishes the context for what follows; (c) specify the characteristics of strategy and

Deviance and Crime How Sociologists Study Them

Sociologists who study deviance and crime examine cultural norms, how they change over time, how they are enforced, and what happens to individuals and societies when norms are broken. Deviance and social norms vary among societies, communities, and times, and often sociologists are interested in why these differences exist and how these differences impact the individuals and groups in those areas. Overview Sociologists define deviance as behavior that is recognized as violating expected rules and norms. It is simply more than nonconformity, however; it is behavior that departs significantly from social expectations. In the sociological perspective on deviance, there is a subtlety that distinguishes it from our commonsense understanding of the same behavior. Sociologists stress social context, not just individual behavior. That is, deviance is looked at in terms of group processes, definitions, and judgments, and not just as unusual individual acts.  Sociologists also recognize that not all behaviors are judged similarly by all groups. What is deviant to one group may not be considered deviant to another. Further, sociologists recognize that established rules and norms are socially created, not just morally decided or individually imposed. That is, deviance lies not just in the behavior itself, but in the social responses of groups to behavior by others. Sociologists often use their understanding of deviance to help explain otherwise ordinary events, such as tattooing or body piercing, eating disorders, or drug and alcohol use. Many of the kinds of questions asked by sociologists who study deviance deal with the social context in which behaviors are committed. For example, are there  conditions under which suicide is acceptable? Would one who commits suicide in the face of a terminal illness be judged differently from a despondent person who jumps from a window? Four Theoretical Approaches Within the sociology of deviance and crime, there are four key theoretical perspectives from which researchers study  why people violate laws or norms, and how society reacts to such acts. Well review them briefly here. Structural strain theory was developed by American sociologist Robert K. Merton and suggests that deviant behavior is the result of strain an individual may experience when the community or society in which they live does not provide the necessary means to achieve culturally valued goals. Merton reasoned that when society fails people in this way, they engage in deviant or criminal acts in order to achieve those goals (like economic success, for example). Some sociologists approach the study of deviance and crime from a structural functionalist standpoint. They would argue that deviance is a necessary part of the process by which social order is achieved and maintained. From this standpoint, deviant behavior serves to remind the majority of the socially agreed upon rules, norms, and taboos, which reinforces their value and thus social order. Conflict theory is also used as a theoretical foundation for the sociological study of deviance and crime. This approach frames deviant behavior and crime as the result of social, political, economic, and material conflicts in society. It can be used to explain why some people resort to criminal trades simply in order to survive in an economically unequal society. Finally, labeling theory  serves as an important frame for those who study deviance and crime.  Sociologists who follow this school of thought would argue that there is a process of labeling by  which deviance comes to be recognized as such. From this standpoint, the societal reaction to deviant behavior suggests that social groups actually create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labeling them as outsiders. This theory further suggests that people engage in deviant acts because they have been labeled as deviant by society, because of their race, or class, or the intersection of the two, for example. Updated by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.